The Prince of Wei - Part 3

Many apologies for the tardiness of this post.  I have no excuse; I simply hope that you can forgive me. Of course, this is all assuming that people actually care about this odd little blog, except my mom (thanks mom).

Anyways, today we'll continue our story of the Prince of Wei.  This week's segment has 2 parts -- the first is more related to the previous section.  As you may remember, last week our worthy (賢／贤） Prince of Wei went through the arduous process of retaining the services of the hidden Shi (隱士）， Mr. Hou Ying, (former) keeper of the Yi Gate.  After his initial attempts were rebuffed, the Prince invited Hou Ying to a royal banquet.  Hou Ying accepted, but behaved with impropriety and made the Prince divert his entire royal escort to go to the market to speak with his servant, Zhu Hai. In the end, at the banquet, it is revealed that through his behavior, Hou Ying both determined that the Prince did indeed humble himself before the Shi and showed the Prince to be magnanimous in comparison to Hou Ying's rudeness.  

At the banquet, they toast one another to show that the relatively arbitrary ritualistic behavior they both engaged in is done for now, and they can return to their prescribed social roles, now with a closer, mutually beneficial, relationship. 


史記 77 ／ Shiji 77

We begin this week's segment with a final scene from the banquet:

5. 候生謂公子曰：“臣所過屠者朱亥，此子賢者，世莫能知，故隱屠間耳。” 公子往數請之，朱亥故不復謝，公子怪之。

Mr. Hou addressed the Prince, saying “My Butcher that I visited, Zhu Hai, this person is a worthy one; no one in the world is able to recognize it, however he is secretly among the butchers.” The Prince went several times to entreat Zhu Hai to be his retainer; Zhu Hai however did not return thanks. The Prince considered it strange.

This may seem an abrupt interlude, as the next part of our story is somewhat unrelated. But fear not! All will be revealed in time.

6. 魏安釐王二十年，秦昭王已破趙長平軍，又進兵圍邯鄲。公子姊為趙惠文王弟平原君夫人，數遺魏王及公子書，請救於魏。魏王使將軍晉鄙將十萬眾救趙。秦王使使者告魏王曰：“吾攻趙旦暮且下，而諸侯敢救者，已拔趙，必移兵先擊之。” 魏王恐，使人止晉鄙，留軍壁鄴，名為救趙，實持兩端以觀望。平原君使者冠蓋相屬於魏，讓魏公子曰：“勝所以自附為婚姻者，以公子之高義，為能急人之困。今邯鄲旦暮降秦而魏救不至，安在公子能急人之困也！且公子縱輕勝，棄之降秦，獨不憐公子姊邪？” 公子患之，數請魏王，及賓客辯士說王萬端。魏王畏秦，終不聽公子。公子自度終不能得之於王，計不獨生而令趙亡，乃請賓客，約車騎百餘乘，欲以客往赴秦軍，與趙俱死。

In of King An Xi of Wei's 20th year [of rule], King Zhao of Qin defeated the army of Zhao state at Chang Ping and again advanced the [Qin] army to besiege Han Dan(1). The Prince [of Wei]'s elder sister was married to King Hui Wen of Zhao's younger brother, Lord Ping Yuan(2); Lord Ping Yuan sent many letters to the King of Wei and the Prince, pleading for help from Wei. The King of Wei sent General Jin Bi with an army of 100,000 to help Zhao. The King of Qin sent a messenger to tell the King of Wei “I have attacked Zhao and at any moment will defeat them, and to any of the feudal lords who dare to help Zhao: after I have defeated Zhao, I will certainly move my troops to attack you next.”(3)

The King of Wei was afraid; he sent men to stop Jin Bi and leave the army encamped at Ye, rescuing Zhao in name only. In reality, he was holding onto both ends [both sides of the conflict, Qin and Zhao] in order to observe [what would happen next]. Lord Ping Yuan's messengers disguised themselves with hats under the carriage canopies as they traveled to Wei. [When they reached the royal palace] they berated the Prince, saying “The reason why Ping Yuan joined himself to this family by marriage(2) was because of the Prince's(5) high righteousness, meaning he is able help others in need. Now Han Dan will surrender to Qin at any moment, and help from Wei will not arrive; where is the Prince's ability to help those in need now?! Moreover, even if the Prince looks down on Ping Yuan and abandons Ping Yuan to surrender to Qin, how could the Prince not pity his own elder sister?”

The Prince worried about this [what the messenger had told him]; many times he went to beg the King of Wei for help, and [he even] gave the expert debaters 10,000 reasons to persuade them. But the King of Wei feared Qin, and in the end he did not heed the Prince. The Prince calculated to himself that in the end he would not be able to receive help from the King; so, he decided not to survive alone while allowing Zhao to perish: thereupon he called on his retainers to assemble an escort of over one hundred chariots, desiring to go with his retainers to rush at the Qin army and die together with Zhao.

How. Romantic. 

This passage really reminds us of our Prince's excellent character traits.  Although Zhao and Wei were politically aligned at this time (see footnotes), we must remember that we're talking about the Warring States period -- emphasis on Warring.  All bets are off when it comes to self-preservation, which explains King An Xi's cowardly behavior in the face of Zhao's desperation.  In contrast, the Prince is all about saving Zhao (and his sister), even if it's futile.  In his words and actions, the Prince shows us that he is indeed as benevolent and righteous as previously described.  (Although we might perhaps add that he's a bit slow -- I mean, there's probably a better way to go about this than sending 100 chariots on a suicide mission, right? What would Hou Ying have to say about this?)

Tune in next week, when we do in fact hear what Hou Ying has to say about this.

1. Han Dan (邯鄲) was the capital of Zhao; Chang Ping (長平) is just another place in Zhao.

2. It's important to remember that at this time, and at the time that the Shiji was written, women weren't really considered people.  Yes, they were people in the physical, most base sense, and they were important insofar as they bore sons (but not daughters so much), but for all intents and purposes, women were really commodities.  So when we read that a certain woman married a certain man, we must remember that this is more akin to politically-inclined gift giving than it is to the modern conception of marriage.  What they're doing is basically trading women, establishing a political relationship by uniting their lines of kinship via (male) offspring. Also, let's not forget that this phenomenon is NOT unique to China.  Most of Europe and Asia did this too.

3.  As we can see from this, the King of Qin is an asshole. That said, though, he was a shrewd dude, able to conquer the various warring states and unite China under the Qin empire. Let us not forget that you have to fuck over a lot of people to get anything of that magnitude done -- then and now.

4. See? Trading women for political advantage. Good thing women aren't autonomous sentient beings or anything, right?

5. As a form of respect, those of lower status refer to others (and sometimes themselves) in the 3rd person. It sounds weird to us, but it was very important to them.

Let's Get Poetic

Many thanks to N.S. for making this post possible.

So I'm sure that you're all dying to find out what happens next to our lovely Prince of Wei, but today's Sunday, and I've decided to post any and all of my esoteric China stuff on Sundays, so you're just going to have to wait until Wednesday. (Of course, this is all assuming that people actually read my blog.)

This post is somewhat divergent from my usual humorous critique of Classical Chinese writing and rehtoric. I've been in a poetic mood today. Perhaps it's due to the impromptu poetry sesh I got on with my roommates last night; perhaps it's because of this beautiful, first edition copy of Wang Wei's poetry in translation that was recently lent to me; who knows? Actually, I do know: it's the Wang Wei. And maybe the impromptu poetry sesh. Okay, so it's probably both of those... and maybe also a little bit of my obsession with poetry... and China... So today, let's put it all together: impromptu Ancient Chinese poetry session, featuring the works of Wang Wei!

(Note: Like the Diamond Sutra, these poems were NOT translated by me; all credit goes to Chang Yin-nan and Lewis C. Walmsley, the compilers of Poems by Wang Wei. Please also note that all phonetic spelling is using the Wade-Giles phonetic system rather than Pinyin. For those of you who study Chinese using Pinyin, I am truly sorry. For those of you who have no idea what I'm talking about, you're doing just fine.)

Wang Wei (王維) 699-759 BCE

Wang Wei was a Tang dynasty poet (and painter, although none of his original works remain) and incredibly influential during his lifetime.  The Tang Dynasty is also considered to be the peak of Imperial China, with abundant foodstuffs, vibrant international exchange, and flourishing arts and culture. According to Chang and Walmsley, the Tang dynasty was "one of those rare periods in history when some great creative force seems to lavish genius on a commonplace world."  High praise indeed. So, the fanatical dedicated student of Chinese history could even go as far as to say that Wang Wei was one of the best of his time, during the best of times. 

Much of Wang Wei's poetry was influenced by Buddhism, which became incredibly popular in China around this time due to the aforementioned international exchange (so maybe you'll notice some similarities between his ideas and the Diamond Sutra, if you had the attention span to finish it).  The poems in this collection follow a classic Tang style of poetry: they focus largely on nature, and were composed semi-spontaneously in what could be termed 'moments of rapture'.

Before we delve into Wang Wei's poetry, I feel compelled to include some excerpts from the introduction to Poems by Wang Wei. The translators' reverence not only for Wang Wei's work, but  also for China's natural beauty and culture, and Chinese language and script, moved me deeply and reminded me why I so love to read and translate Classical Chinese.

"The poetry of Wang Wei, intimately personal in character, may well be likened to a diary of the human spirit. Let, then, this introduction also be of a personal nature.  Let me attempt to convey something of the adventure in joy shared by Chang Yin-nan and myself [Lewis C. Walmsley] while translating the following poems.  For him, our work has eased somewhat the nostalgia within his heart caused by long exile from his native land.  For me, it has been an exultant escape: through the doorway of the mind, I have walked away from our concrete city blocks to roam the spacious Chinese countryside once more.  Both of us were happily forced back in spirit to the world of nature. [...]

"In venturing this translation, Mr. Chang and I have been made all too aware  of the advantages a poet in Chinese has over the relatively limited English language.  A scope, a freedom exists, scarcely comprehensible to those acquainted only with English.  With no rigid rules of grammar, with little concern for tense, number or mood, the Chinese author can skip blithely along, indeed fly. Like rabbits' foot-prints in new-fallen snow, his fresh impressions follow one another in crisp, staccato form.  The pictographs are so intriguing and the reward from solving them is so satisfying that the translator becomes a fascinated addict who must ever pursue the mystery.

 "Western readers may sometimes find a lost line or two which may seem an unrelated idea, a nonsequitur. This may be explained by Wang Wei's unstudied naturalness. Spontaneous thinking or conversation seldom produces a logically connected expression. At the same time, if the imagination probes beneath the apparent break, the reader can usually fill in the jump in thought. [...]

"With a few exceptions, Wang Wei makes little attempt to tell stories in his poems.  He seeks expression in tangible or concrete form in order that intimate and understanding companions may share his vision.  Nor does Wang Wei often attempt to formulate philosophical truths.  His approach to life's problems is very direct.  His shorter poems are swift observations.  Like breathing in and out, events and their repercussions on his emotions succeed each other.  As with most works of an intuitional character, he cares less about conveying meaning than in evoking psychic reactions." 

王維詩 / Poems of Wang Wei

鹿柴 /  Deer Forest Hermitage(1)

空山不見人
但聞人語響
返景入深林
復照青苔上 

Through the deep wood the slanting sunlight
Casts motley patterns on the jade-green mosses,
No glimpse of man in the lonely mountain,
Yet faint voices drift on the air.

Three Poems

I
The cottage where I now live
Faces the outlet of Mêng-chin River.(2)
Boats come often from the south;
Will they, I wonder, take my letters home?

II
You have come from my native village.
You must know what is happening there?
The day you left -- did you notice that winter plum
By my latticed window?  Was it yet in bloom? 

III
Already blossoms climb the winder plum here,
And a bird song is heard once more.
With a sad heart I note the spring grass turning green yet again:
I fear lest it over-grow the marble stairs.

Two Songs of an Autumn Night

I
While the water-clock drops --ting--ting, how long the night!
The moonlight sifts across the earth through scudding clouds,
In the still cool of autumn, the insects' cry persists through the long darkness...
Frost, please stay away! The winter clothing is yet to be sent to the front.(3)

II 
Newly born crescent moon; pale, the autumn mist...
She has not yet changed her silk garments, already far too thin;
Feverishly she plays her silver harp all through the night,
Her heart too full of fear to return to her empty chamber.

On Passing the Monastery of Accumulated Fragrance

Ignorant of the way to the Monastery of Accumulated Fragrance,
I wandered many miles through cloud-caught peaks
And ancient forests, spying no trace of human footstep.
Whence then, the faint peal of a temple bell?
A gurgling stream chokes on treacherous rocks;
The dying sun flicks coldly through the blue pines.
By a quiet pool designed for meditation
I subdue the Poisonous Dragon, passion.(4)

 At Wang-Ch'uan Cottage After Heavy Rain

Smoke curls slowly upward in these deserted mountains after days of desolate rain.
Again the hellebore(3) and the millet are cooked for labourers on the land to the east.
Above the spreading rice-fields a white egret stretches its wings,
And yellow orioles sing within the dark foliage of summer trees...
I practise quietism among these solitary hills and, musing upon the morning hibiscus,  think upon life.
Under the pines I live frugally, munching dewy sunflower seeds,
A wild old man of the mountains, long past desire to compete for official promotion...
Now what right have my only neighbors, the sea gulls, to be shy of me!

I hope you enjoyed this interlude as much as I did.  Unfortunately, even the best translations cannot compare to the breadth of semantic meaning conveyed in the original language, and this is particularly so with Classical Chinese; still, I think that we can take a peek into the perspective of Wang Wei and see how the world might have looked to him. The last poem is, I think, my favorite because it really captures the sense of fully immersing oneself in nature: observing and reveling in the movement of the natural world; peacefully coexisting within one's environment; pondering life whilst surrounded by it... his work really does provoke a certain "psychic reaction".

If you are interested in learning a little more about the poetry of Wang Wei and the process of translation, I recommend checking out the Wang Wei Index -- you can see the works of other Chinese poets as well.

That's all for today, folks.  Next, we re-visit the journey of our brave Prince of Wei and his faithful retainer Hou Ying.

1. This translation is somewhat different from the standard translation.  You might notice that the first two lines of the Classical Chinese version are actually the last two lines of the English translation -- I'm not quite sure why the translators made this decision, although personally I it evokes a stronger emotional reaction.  (For other translations of this poem, please take a look at what Eliot Weinberger and Octavio Paz have to say.)

2. Wang Wei is writing many of these poems from Wang-ch'uan Valley; this is somewhere between the Wang River and a mountain range.  In Wang Wei's self-written forward: "My cottage was in the Wang-ch'uan Valley.  My wanderings included many places: Mêng-ch'eng Valley, Mount Hua-tzǔ, My Study Among the Beautiful Apricot Trees, A Hill of Graceful Bamboo, Deer Forest Hermitage [the setting for the first poem], Magnolia Hermitage, Rivers of Dogwood, A Path Through the Imperial Locust Trees, An Arbour beside the Lake, South Hill, beside Lake Yi, Waves of Willow, At the Rapids of the Luan Family, The Stream of Powdered Gold, White Stone Bank, North Hill, My Hermitage in the Bamboo Grove, Hibiscus Hill, The Lacquer Tree Garden, and the Pepper Tree Garden.  During that period, my good friend P'ei Ti and I composed poems at leisure." Many of the above mentioned places are also the topics of Wang Wei's poems.

3. This poem was likely written during a Mongol invasion -- Wang Wei's allusion to "the front" i.e., the war front, reminds us that China at this time, although prosperous, was not necessarily at peace.  This sense of anxiety -- and perhaps also displacement -- definitely color's his poetry.

4.  What does he mean by this? Passion for what? Wang Wei's devout Buddhist beliefs suggest that he would like to overcome the passion of material desires, but is it that simple?

Bibliography:

Chang, Yin-nan, and Lewis C. Walmsley, trans. Poems by Wang Wei. Rutland: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1958. Print.

The Prince of Wei - Part 2

After my shameless Sunday post, I'm sure you're all dying for good authentic Chinese, and to hear more about our devastatingly clever Prince Wuji of Wei!  Well, here you go:

(This next section of our tale is somewhat unrelated to the first part, but let's just keep in mind that  we're still, for all intents and purposes, in the exposition of the story.)


Shiji 77

4. 魏有隱士曰侯贏，年七十，家貧，為大梁夷門監者。公子聞之，往請，欲厚遺之。不肯受，曰：“臣脩身絜行數十年，終不以監門困故而受公子財。” 公子於是乃置酒大會賓客。坐定，公子從車騎，虛左，自迎夷門侯生。侯生攝敝衣冠，直上載公子上坐，不讓，欲以觀公子。公子執轡愈恭。侯生又謂公子曰：“臣有客在市屠中，願枉車騎過之。” 公子引車入市，侯生下見其客朱亥，俾倪，故久立與其客語，微察公子。公子顏色愈和。當是時，魏將相宗室賓客滿堂，待公子舉酒。市人皆觀公子執轡。從騎皆竊罵侯生。侯生視公子色終不變，乃謝客就車。至家公子引侯生坐上坐，遍贊賓客，賓客皆驚。酒酣，公子起，為壽侯生前。侯生因謂公子曰：“今日贏之為公子亦足矣。贏乃夷門抱關者也，而公子親枉車騎，自迎贏於眾人廣坐之中，不宜有所過，今公子故過之。然贏欲就公子之名，故久立公子車騎市中，故客以觀公子，公子愈恭。市人皆以贏為小人，而以公子為長者能下士也。” 於是罷酒，侯贏遂為上客。

In Wei there was a Shi in recluse(1) named Hou Ying; he was seventy years old; his family was poor; he acted as supervisor of the Yi Gate(2). The Prince heard of him and went to visit him, desiring to generously present him with gifts. [Hou Ying was] unwilling to accept the gifts, saying “I have cultivated my body and cleansed my conduct for several decades. In the end I will not, simply because of my poverty as a gate supervisor, thus accept the Prince's riches.”

The Prince thereupon arranged a grand banquet and assembled his retainers. When the seating was arranged, the Prince took an escort of carriages and horses, leaving empty the seat of honor(3), to personally invite Mr. Hou of the Yi Gate [to attend the event].

[Upon receiving the invitation,] Mr. Hou straightened his tattered clothes and cap; he directly ascended to take the Prince's seat of honor and did not yield [his seat to the Prince], desiring by this to observe the Prince[‘s reaction]. The Prince took the reins and was all the more respectful. 

Mr. Hou again addressed the Prince, saying “I have a servant [who is] in the market among the butchers; I suggest we deviate the escort(4) to visit him.”  The Prince directed the carriage into the market; Mr. Hou descended and met his servant Zhu Hai, [all the while] looking sideways [at the Prince]; he deliberately stood for a long time speaking with his servant, covertly inspecting the Prince. The Prince's expression was all the more amiable.

At this time, the generals and ministers of Wei and the honored guests had filled the royal hall and were waiting for the Prince to begin the banquet.

The city market people all watched as the Prince took the reins. The mounted escorts all privately cursed Mr. Hou. Mr. Hou saw that in the end the Prince's expression did not change; thereupon he took leave of his servant and they left in the carriage. When they reached [the Prince's] home(5), the Prince directed Mr. Hou to sit in the seat of honor and praised him to the guests; the guests were all surprised.

When he was flushed with wine, the Prince rose and in order to toast Mr. Hou in front [of him and everyone]. Mr. Hou thereupon addressed the Prince saying “Today I tried to provoke the Prince. I am merely the keeper of the Yi Gate, and yet the Prince personally took an escort of carriages and horses and personally invited me to sit in the center of the crowd; it is not appropriate for someone such as myself to be visited by the Prince, but today the Prince visited me. However, I desired to enhance the Prince's reputation: I deliberately stood for a long time with the Prince and his escort in the market, visiting my servant in order to observe the Prince; the Prince was all the more respectful. The market people all consider me a small-minded man and consider the Prince a magnanimous man who is able to humble himself before the Shi.” Thereupon they finished the banquet, and Hou Ying then became a high-ranking retainer.

This section of the story is, in my humble opinion, one of the most interesting bits. Not because it's action-packed (although the suspense certainly kept me on the edge of my seat -- was the Prince going to pass Hou Ying's tests??), but because we meet my very favorite character: Mr. Hou Ying. Hou Ying is your ideal Shi: he's humble, smart, and really really knows how to discover a worthy ruler (and then subsequently kiss said ruler's ass) and snag a top spot among the retainers. And to be perfectly honest, I almost wish that I could be Hou Ying -- I would totally make a fool of myself publicly if it was going to get me a free banquet and a promotion. (I mean, I basically did all that stuff last week just for an amazon gift card.)

What I think is most interesting about this bit is that what we're reading isn't necessarily what Mr. Hou Ying or The Prince did; for all we know they could both be really rude, or be having a secret love affair or a butcher fetish. What we're actually reading about is what Sima Qian, 200ish years after the fact, thought they probably would have done considering how important Confucian behaviors were, and considering that both characters are brave(ish), smart, patriotic, and they're our protagonists. Apparently protagonists, like our Prince, have entirely too much time (and money) on their hands, and like Hou Ying, they're willing to cut out early from work just to go to a party. 

More importantly though, these protagonists are well versed in the complex dance that is Classical Chinese status-based etiquette. Hou Ying must be sure that the Prince is worthy; to that extent he devises his clever plan to make himself seem like a jerk. The Prince plays along very nicely, as we can see: he offers Hou Ying the finest of material goods (which Hou Ying deftly refuses); he continuously humbles himself before Hou Ying, despite his high status (and the fact that Hou Ying is acting like a dick), and he does it all with a smile. But that's not all: Hou Ying must also ensure that in his actions he is also venerating the Prince (because otherwise the Prince may very well have him put to death). That they both toast to one another signifies that their dance is complete, and they can finally assume (or re-assume) their roles. Study up, kids; these are life's important lessons.

What do you think actually happened? What do you think will happen next? Are you already bored to tears with this epic? Then comment below! And stay tuned, 'cause shit's gonna get a lot more interesting.

1. Literally, a "hidden Shi"

2. The Ancient Chinese apparently love their run-on sentences... I do not, however, which is why you may see a painfully large number of semicolons.

3. Which seat of honor? In the carriage, or at the banquet? Either way, this seat would usually not be given to an untitled individual, so this tells us our Prince really means business. Dance, monkey, dance.

4. Here, it seems that Hou Ying is not simply referring to the Prince's carriage and guards -- he's talking about the ENTIRE royal escort that accompanied the Prince to the Yi Gate to invite Hou Ying to the banquet. So he's asking the Prince to take like 100+ people with them to the market, all so Hou Ying can have a chat with his servant. Hou Ying = a total baller.
Also, why does a poor gatekeeper have a servant??

5. i.e. that massive fucking palace where all the cool kids are waiting for the banquet

Shameless #1

I know this blog is supposed to be about English translations of Chinese works, but since I'm a little talented arrogant, and also since it's Sunday, I've decided to also post some of the things that I've written in Chinese (it's a little like reverse translation... ish... not really).  

This is actually a speech that I gave this past Friday at the University of Rhode Island 2014 Chinese Speech Contest.  "Why did you enter into a Chinese speech contest?" you are probably wondering.  Well, folks, it's because I'm a masochist and enjoy shaming myself publicly. (And now, apparently, I enjoy shaming myself on the internet too.) But, in the end I guess it was all worth it, because I won! (And they gave me an amazon gift card, which is really all I wanted anyway.) 

Here's a short synopsis of the speech in English, for those of you who are too lazy to put it into Google translate:

This speech covers a mini-research project regarding Chinese attitudes towards Chinese-American trade that I conducted this past summer while studying in Guangzhou, Guangdong.  The project consisted of a series of interviews with hotel workers, high school and college students, university professors, and one Chinese-American trade specialist.  I found that all respondents supported Chinese-American trade; however this was not due to the expansion of American products into Chinese markets. Rather, almost all respondents explained that they saw Chinese-American trade as beneficial to China due to China's exports market expansion and its importance for Chinese economic development. Most respondents chose to buy Chinese products rather than American or other foreign products, however respondents' rationales for this differed based on social status.  Working-class respondents chose Chinese products because of their low price and convenience, while middle- and upper- class respondents, particularly students, cited patriotism as their reasoning for buying Chinese products.  Moreover, regarding the quality of Chinese goods versus foreign goods, working-class respondents felt that Chinese goods had "quite good quality", while middle- and upper-class respondents chose to buy Chinese goods in spite of issues they saw in quality.  Overall, its clear that there is widespread support for Chinese goods and Chinese-American trade (focusing on Chinese exports) in various sectors of Guangzhou society, however the thought process behind these economic decisions is mitigated by class and education levels.

DISCLAIMER: Just because I'm posting my writing in Chinese up here doesn't mean it's actually good writing.  Despite my running this blog, I don't actually enjoy writing all too much, and writing in Chinese is really difficult for me (just because my speech was the best of a bunch of white kids doesn't necessarily mean that its of a high caliber...), so it's quite possible that there are grammatical errors and logical fallacies and whatnot.  All I ask is that you humor me and read my shit.  And comment if you think I can make any of it better! 

中国货与中美贸易：社会情况怎么影响个人的思想

各位好，我中文已经学了五年多了，不过今年夏天是我第一次去中国，在广州的中山大学学习了两个月的中文。今天很高兴有这个机会跟你们谈一件我（在广州的时候）很感兴趣的事情，就是：对于中国制造的商品，中国人自己的态度是什么。

我很想了解中国人对于中国货的感觉，还有中国人怎么比较中国货与美国货。中国人更喜欢买哪一个国家的产品呢？原因是什么？另外，我还想了解中国人怎么看中美之间的贸易关系。作为一个美国人,我来中国之前只听过美国人的观点，因此我很想知道中国人认为中美贸易有什么利弊。更具体一点,我很好奇社会地位是否影响了个人的看法。比方说，普通老百姓怎么看中国货与中美贸易？那,有钱人呢？受过高等教育的人呢?

我在街上、饭馆里、旅馆里、美国连锁店等地方采访了许多人，包括高中生与大学生、大学教授、旅馆的服务员与保安、还有一位中美贸易专家，一共十五个人，我问了每一个人四个问题： 您平常喜欢买中国货还是美国货？；您为中国货感到自豪吗？; 不少美国人反对在美国的中国货，因为现在在中美贸易中美国有逆差，您觉得这个看法有没有道理？；还有，您认为中美贸易对中国老百姓有什么利弊？

采访的结果我觉得特别有意思。大多数的受访者支持中美贸易，不过这不是因为他们想买美国货，而是因为觉得出口有助于中国经济的发展。有意思的是，除了一位受访者以外，其他人一般都会买中国品牌的商品，并不太喜欢买美国货。更有意思的是， 普通人之所以买中国货，是因为便宜、方便等务实的理由。那么，教育水平比较高的人呢？他们从全球化与中美贸易得到更多的利益，买得起外国进口的商品，可是他们也经常买中国货。不过，他们的理由都是出于爱国心，这在学生身上特别明显。加上，我采访的普通人都说他们觉得中国货的质量不错，没有什么问题。但是，地位更高的受访者则说了他们觉得中国货可能有问题。但是，因为他们是中国人，所以觉得无论有没有问题他们还要买中国货。无论社会情况，受访者一般都支持中国货，唯一的差别是理由。看来，在中美贸易及中国国内市场上，中国货品真的很受到中国人的支持。

Thanks for reading :)  If you're really desperate for an English translation, comment below and I'll see what I can do (although I'm not making any promises because it feels really weird to translate my own work). 

Catch y'all on Wednesday, when we learn what happens next to our beloved Prince of Wei!

The Prince of Wei - Part 1

A star is born; an epic begins. A Prince tries to save his puny country from conquest by enlisting the help of a wise old man...

Sima Qian, ca 145 or 135 - 86 BCE

But let's not get ahead of ourselves. Today's post is coming to us from the Shiji (詩集／诗集), known more commonly in English as the "Records of the Grand Historian". (Although I personally prefer to call it the "Historical Records", as the writer was not acting in his official capacity as Grand Historian when he wrote this book.) The Shiji was written during the Han dynasty by Sima Qian (司馬遷／司马迁) , who worked diligently during his free time (even after being castrated -- what a baller, am I right?) to create a history of China from antiquity (including myth) to his contemporary era. It's really quite impressive. This is actually the first historical record of China, and it informs the basis for scholarly knowledge of China before 0 CE.

Let's just think about this for a second. We have a historical anthology coming at us from about 2,100 YEARS AGO that is looking CENTURIES back intro its own past. Please excuse me while I take a nerd moment and revel in the history...

The Warring States Period: 232 Years in 12 seconds

Right, back to business. This is the first post in my series of Shiji 77, which chronicles the heroic but ultimately futile acts of Prince Wuji of the state of Wei (魏, the darker green state on the map).  The story takes place during the Warring States Period, in which seven-ish powerful (and less powerful) kingdoms competed for territorial control in what is now the northeastern part of China. Kind of like what happened during feudal Europe, but way earlier and with a very different ending. 

You may remember our story of the Yan Man -- that also took place during this era, which explains why it makes no mention of China.

Important background note: the state of Qin (秦, which, as we can see from the graphic, kicked the crap out of all the other states and founded the Qin dynasty -- that's where the name China comes from, actually), is not the good guy in this story. Actually, Qin is never really the good guy in the Shiji; and considering that the Shiji was written during the Han dynasty (which overthrew the Qin), maybe we shouldn't be so surprised.

Shiji 77

1. 魏公子無忌者，魏昭王子少子而魏安釐王異母弟也。昭王薨，安釐王即位，封公子為信陵君。是時范雎亡魏相秦，以怨魏齊故，秦兵圍大梁，破魏華陽下軍，走芒卯。魏王及公子患之。

Prince Wuji of Wei was King Zhao of Wei's youngest son and King An Xi of Wei's younger brother by another mother*. When King Zhao died, King An Xi ascended the throne and made the Prince Lord of Xing Lin.

At this time, Fan Ju escaped Wei to serve as minister of Qin because he bore a grudge against Wei Qi (minister of Wei)**; the Qin army besieged Da Liang, defeated Wei at Hua Yang, and forced Mang Mao (commander of the Wei Army) to flee. King An Xi and the Prince were worried about this.

2. 公子為人仁而下士，士無賢不肖皆謙而禮交之，不敢以其富貴驕士。士以此方數千里争往歸之，致食客三千人。當是時，諸侯以公子賢，多客，不敢加兵謀魏十餘年。

The Prince, in behavior, was benevolent, and he humbled himself before the Shi; no matter whether the Shi were worthy or unfilial, the Prince was, towards all [of the Shi], modest, and he interacted [with them] according to ritual; he did not dare to treat the Shi arrogantly simply because of his wealth and nobility***. The Shi within several thousand li of this area competed to show their allegiance to him [the Prince] and gathered three thousand people as retainers [for him]. At this time, the feudal lords of other states, because of the Prince's worthiness and many retainers, did not dare to use put their armies towards a scheme against Wei for over ten years.

3. 公子與魏王博，而北境傳舉烽，言 “趙寇至，且入界。"魏王釋博，欲召大臣謀。公子止王曰：“趙王田獵耳，非為寇也。” 復博如故。王恐，心不在博。居頃，復從北方來傳言曰：“魏王獵耳，非為寇也。” 魏王大驚，曰：“公子何以知之？” 公子曰：“臣之客有能深得趙王陰事者，趙王所為，客輒以報臣，臣以此知之。” 是後魏王畏公子賢能，不敢任公子以國政。

The Prince and the King of Wei were playing chess, when the north wall sent word by beacon, saying “The enemy raiders have arrived and are about to breach the frontier. The King of Wei abandoned the chess game, desiring to summon his High Minister to plan with him. The Prince stopped the King, saying “The King of Zhao is in the fields hunting and that's all; [he is] not raiding,” and [the Prince] returned to the chess game as before.

The King was afraid; his heart was not in the chess game. After a short time, again word came from the north, saying “The King of Zhao is hunting and that is all; [he is] not raiding.”

The King of Wei was greatly surprised, and said “How did the Prince know this?”

The Prince said “Among my retainers there is one who is able to to obtain the King of Zhao's secret information; that which the King of Zhao does, my retainer invariably reports to me. Because of this, I know it.”

After this, the King feared the Prince's worthiness and ability; he did not dare to include the Prince in any state administration.

So, to sum up what we've learned so far: Prince Wuji is pretty awesome. He fits all of the Confucian values (as do most heroes in the Shiji, actually), and he's basically an all-around baller. And on top of that, he actually cares about his brother and his kingdom, which is so very sweet (and a little naive), especially considering King An Xi is only his half-brother anyway. (Not that half-brother's can't be close or anything like that; it's just that harem life doesn't seem like it would lead a crown prince to grow close to his "brother by another mother".)

King An Xi, on the other hand, comes off as a jerk here. Let us observe: the Prince tells him that he has access to important information regarding an enemy state, which leads the King to isolate the Prince from state administration. Right. That makes perfect sense, because the person who knows the most about the enemy is obviously a useless ally. "Maybe the King was worried about the Prince usurping power?" you might suggest. Perhaps, perhaps, but given the Prince's radiant character (and the fact that he's choosing to share all of his information with the King anyway), it mostly sounds like the King was acting, in his official capacity, like a total dick.


What happens next? Will the King allow the Prince re-entry into his inner circle? Will the Zhao raiders come after all? Will Qin return for another attack? Find out next week as our riveting chronicle continues.

*I never thought I'd have an academic excuse to use this phrase.
**Much of this story can be found in Shiji 79, which will be forthcoming! (eventually)
***The Shi are the scholar class in Ancient Chinese society. They are also frequently referred to at the literati of Ancient China, as they had unique access to education. This bit is to imply that the Shi, regardless of their wealth, possess certain qualities that render them worthy of the utmost respect (or, at least, they should possess those qualities). They're almost like the priests of knowledge. Even a ruler has to respect them, and we don't hear that very often.

The Diamond Sutra

And now for something a little bit different.

This piece is NOT one that I translated (those I'll be posting on Wednesdays), but I found it pretty perplexing interesting, and I hope you will too.  If this stuff isn't really your thing, please allow me this moment of nerdiness. It is a Sunday, after all.

A Sutra is a Buddhist religious manual or text.  This specific Sutra is the Diamond Sutra, but what is way cooler is that it's a translation of a Buddhist text INTO CLASSICAL CHINESE! The manuscript was discovered in one of the Mogao Caves in Dunhuang (敦煌), Gansu Province (甘肃省／甘肅省). It was likely done sometime around the 5th - 8th century CE. It's a translation of the Taishō Triptaka, 8:235 (I don't know what that means, but maybe you do!).

This is the drawing that was found as part of the manuscript. Badass.

NOTE: This piece was NOT translated by me. It was translated as part of the International Dunhuang Project (国际敦煌项目／國際敦煌項目), which is creating an online anthology of the artifacts from the caves.  If you're interested in Buddhism, or Ancient China, or if you're just fucking around on the internet, check out this site because it's kind of amazing. There are texts and tons of different languages and scripts, and they also have catalogued artifacts, statues, murals, etc. If you want to find this specific piece, you can click the link here. If that link doesn't work, search "diamond sutra" on the site -- this manuscript is the first result.

(And if I'm violating any copyright or anything by posting this translation, please let me know; I'd really rather avoid prosecution. All I want is to spread that Classical Chinese love.)

Also, I'm sorry to note that I do not have a copy of the Classical Chinese for this piece. 非常保險，希望大家能理解。 That said, there are pictures available of the entire scroll, so please do feel free to take a look!

Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra
Translated from Taishō Tripiṭaka volume 8, number 235.

1. The Cause of the Dharma Assembly: Thus have I heard. At one time the Buddha was in Śrāvastī, residing in the Jeta Grove, in Anāthapiṇḍada’s park, along with a great saṃgha of bhikṣus, twelve hundred and fifty in all. At mealtime, the Bhagavān put on his robe, picked up his bowl, and made his way into the great city of Śrāvastī to beg for food within the city walls. After he had finished begging sequentially from door to door, he returned and ate his meal. Then he put away his robe and bowl, washed his feet, arranged his seat, and sat down.

2. Elder Subhūti Opens the Question: From the midst of the great multitude, Elder Subhūti then arose from his seat, bared his right shoulder, and knelt with his right knee to the ground. With his hands joined together in respect, he addressed the Buddha, saying, “How extraordinary, Bhagavān, is the manner in which the Tathāgata is skillfully mindful of the bodhisattvas, and skillfully instructs and cares for the bodhisattvas! Bhagavān, when good men and good women wish to develop the mind of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi, how should their minds dwell? How should they pacify their minds?” The Buddha replied, “Excellent, excellent, Subhūti, for it is just as you have said: the Tathāgata is skillfully mindful of the bodhisattvas, and skillfully instructs and cares for the bodhisattvas. Now listen carefully, because your question will be answered. Good men and good women who wish to develop the mind of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi should dwell thusly, and should pacify their minds thusly.” “Just so, Bhagavān. We are joyfully wishing to hear it.”

3. The True Way of the Great Vehicle: The Buddha told Subhūti, “Bodhisattva-mahāsattvas should pacify their minds thusly: ‘All different types of sentient beings, whether born from eggs, born from wombs, born from moisture, or born from transformation; having form or no form; having thought, no thought, or neither thought nor no thought—I will cause them all to become liberated and enter Remainderless Nirvāṇa.’ Thusly sentient beings are liberated without measure, without number, and to no end; however, truly no sentient beings obtain liberation. Why? Subhūti, if a bodhisattva has a notion of a self, a notion of a person, a notion of a being, or a notion of a life, he is not a bodhisattva.

4. The Wondrous Practice of Non-abiding: “Moreover, Subhūti, bodhisattvas should not abide in dharmas when practicing giving. This is called ‘giving without abiding in form.’ This giving does not abide in sounds, scents, tastes, sensations, or dharmas. Subhūti, bodhisattvas should practice giving thusly, not abiding in characteristics. Why? If bodhisattvas do not abide in characteristics in their practice of giving, then the merits of this are inconceivable and immeasurable. Subhūti, what do you think? Is the space to the east conceivable or measurable?” “Certainly not, Bhagavān.” “Subhūti, what do you think? Is the space to the south, west, north, the four intermediary directions, or the zenith or nadir, conceivable or measurable?” “Certainly not, Bhagavān.” “Subhūti, for bodhisattvas who do not abide when practicing giving, the merits are also such as this: inconceivable and immeasurable. Subhūti, bodhisattvas should only dwell in what is taught thusly.

5. The Principle for True Perception: “Subhūti, what do you think? Can the Tathāgata be perceived by means of bodily marks?” “Certainly not, Bhagavān. The Tathāgata cannot be perceived by means of the bodily marks. Why? The bodily marks that the Tathāgata speaks of are not bodily marks.” The Buddha told Subhūti, “Everything that has marks is deceptive and false. If all marks are not seen as marks, then this is perceiving the Tathāgata.”

6. The Rarity of True Belief: Subhūti addressed the Buddha, saying, “Bhagavān, will there be sentient beings who are able to hear these words thusly, giving rise to true belief?” The Buddha told to Subhūti, “Do not speak that way. After the extinction of the Tathāgata, in the next five hundred years, there will be those who maintain the precepts and cultivate merit, who will be able to hear these words and give rise to a mind of belief. Such beings have not just planted good roots with one buddha, or with two buddhas, or with three, four, or five buddhas. They have already planted good roots with measureless millions of buddhas, to be able to hear these words and give rise to even a single thought of clean, clear belief. Subhūti, the Tathāgata in each case knows this, and in each case perceives this, and these sentient beings thus attain immeasurable merit. Why? This is because these beings are holding no further notions of a self, notions of a person, notions of a being, or notions of a life. They are holding no notions of dharmas and no notions of non-dharmas. Why? If the minds of sentient beings grasp after appearances, then this is attachment to a self, a person, a being, and a life. If they grasp after notions of dharmas, that is certainly attachment to a self, a person, a being, and a life. Why? When one grasps at non-dharmas, then that is immediate attachment to a self, a person, a being, and a life. Therefore, you should neither grasp at dharmas, nor should you grasp at non-dharmas. Regarding this principle, the Tathāgata frequently says, ‘You bhikṣus should know that the dharma I speak is like a raft. Even dharmas should be relinquished, so how much more so the non-dharmas?’

7. No Obtaining, No Expounding: “Subhūti, what do you think? Has the Tathāgata obtained Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi? Is there any dharma the Tathāgata has spoken?” Subhūti replied, “Thus do I explain the true meaning of the Buddha’s teachings: there is no fixed dharma of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi, nor is there a fixed dharma the Tathāgata can speak. Why? The Tathāgata’s exposition of the Dharma can never be grasped or spoken, being neither dharma nor non-dharma. What is it, then? All the noble ones are distinguished by the unconditioned Dharma.”

8. Emerging from the Dharma: “Subhūti, what do you think? If someone filled the three thousand great thousand-worlds with the Seven Precious Jewels in the practice of giving, would such a person obtain many merits?” Subhūti replied, “Very many, Bhagavān! Why? Such merits do not have the nature of merits, and for this reason the Tathāgata speaks of many merits.” “If a person accepts and maintains even as little as a four-line gāthā from within this sūtra, speaking it to others, then his or her merits will be even greater. Why? Subhūti, this is because all buddhas, as well as the dharmas of the Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi of the buddhas, emerge from this sūtra. Subhūti, what is called the Buddha Dharma is not a buddha dharma.

9. The Appearance without Appearance: “Subhūti, what do you think? Does a srotaāpanna have the thought, ‘I have obtained the fruit of a srotaāpanna?’” Subhūti replied, “No, Bhagavān. Why? ‘Srotaāpanna’ refers to one who has entered the stream, yet there is nothing entered into. There is no entry into forms, sounds, scents, tastes, sensations, or dharmas. Thus is one called a srotaāpanna.” “Subhūti, what do you think? Does a sakṛdāgāmin have the thought, ‘I have obtained the fruit of a sakṛdāgāmin?’” Subhūti replied, “No, Bhagavān. Why? ‘Sakṛdāgāmin’ refers to one who will return once more, yet there is nothing which leaves or returns. Thus is one called a sakṛdāgāmin.” “Subhūti, what do you think? Does an anāgāmin have the thought, ‘I have obtained the fruit of an anāgāmin?’” Subhūti replied, “No, Bhagavān. Why? ‘Anāgāmin’ refers to one who will not return, yet there is nothing non-returning. Thus is one called an anāgāmin.”

“Subhūti, what do you think? Does an arhat have the thought, ‘I have obtained the fruit of an arhat?’” Subhūti replied, “No, Bhagavān. Why? There is truly no dharma which may be called an arhat. Bhagavān, if an arhat has the thought, ‘I have attained the Arhat Path,’ then this is a person attached to a self, a person, a being, and a life. Bhagavān, the Buddha says that among arhats, I am the foremost in my practice of the Samādhi of Non-contention, and am the foremost free of desire. However, Bhagavān, I do not have the thought, ‘I am an arhat free of desire.’ If I were thinking this way, then the Bhagavān would not speak of ‘Subhūti, the one who dwells in peace.’ It is because there is truly nothing dwelled in, that he speaks of ‘Subhūti, the one who dwells in peace.’”

10. The Adornment of Pure Lands: The Buddha addressed Subhūti, saying, “What do you think? In the past when the Tathāgata was with Dīpaṃkara Buddha, was there any dharma obtained?” “No, Bhagavān. When the Tathāgata was with Dīpaṃkara Buddha there was truly no dharma obtained.” “Subhūti, what do you think? Do bodhisattvas adorn buddha-lands?” “No, Bhagavān. Why? The adornments of buddha-lands are not adornments, and are thus called adornments.” “Therefore, Subhūti, bodhisattva-mahāsattvas should thusly give rise to a clear and pure mind—a mind not associated with abiding in form; a mind not associated with abiding in sounds, scents, tastes, sensations, or dharmas; a mind not abiding in life. Subhūti, suppose a person had a body like Mount Sumeru, King of Mountains. Would this body be great?” Subhūti replied, “It would be extremely great, Bhagavān. Why? The Buddha teaches that no body is the Great Body.”

11. Unconditioned Merits Surpass All: “Subhūti, suppose each sand grain in the Ganges River, contained its own Ganges River. What do you think, would there be many grains of sand of the Ganges River?” Subhūti said, “There would be extremely many, Bhagavān. The number of Ganges Rivers alone would be countless, let alone their grains of sand.” “Subhūti, I will now tell you a truth. If a good man or good woman filled such a number of three thousand great thousand-worlds with the Seven Precious Jewels in the practice of giving, would he or she obtain many merits?” Subhūti said, “Extremely many, Bhagavān.” The Buddha told Subhūti, “Just so, if good men and good women accept and maintain even a four-line gāthā from within this sūtra, speaking it to others, then the merits of this surpass the former merits.

12. Venerating the True Teachings: “Moreover, Subhūti, if one speaks even a four-line gāthā from within this sūtra, you should understand that this place is like the shrine of a buddha. In every world, the devas, humans, and asuras should provide offerings to it. How much more so for those capable of accepting and maintaining the entire sūtra? Subhūti, you should know that this is a person with the highest and most exceptional Dharma. Wherever this sūtra dwells is the Buddha or an honored disciple.”

13. Receiving and Maintaining the Dharma: Subhūti asked the Buddha, “Bhagavān, by what name should we revere and maintain this sūtra?” The Buddha told Subhūti, “This sūtra is called the Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā, and by this name you should revere and maintain it. Why is it called this? Subhūti, this Prajñāpāramitā spoken by the Buddha is not a perfection of prajñā. Subhūti, what do you think? Has the Tathāgata actually spoken any dharma?” Subhūti replied, “Bhagavān, the Tathāgata has not spoken.” “Subhūti, what do you think? Are there very many atoms contained in three thousand great thousand-worlds?” Subhūti replied, “There are extremely many, Bhagavān.” “Subhūti, the atoms spoken of by the Tathāgata are not atoms, and are thus called atoms. The worlds spoken of by the Tathāgata are not worlds, and are thus called worlds. Subhūti, what do you think? Can the Tathāgata be seen by means of the Thirty-two Marks?” “No, Bhagavān, the Tathāgata cannot be seen by means of the Thirty-two Marks. Why? The Thirty-two Marks that the Tathāgata speaks of are not marks, and are thus called the Thirty-two Marks.” “Subhūti, suppose there were a good man or good woman who, in the practice of giving, gave his or her body away as many times as there are sand grains in the Ganges River. If there are people who accept and maintain even a four-line gāthā from within this sūtra, then the merits of this are far greater.”

14. Leaving Appearances: Nirvāṇa: At that time, Subhūti, hearing this sūtra being spoken, had a profound understanding of its essential meaning, and burst into tears. He then addressed the Buddha, saying, “How exceptional, Bhagavān, is the Buddha who thus speaks this profound sūtra! Since attaining the Eye of Prajñā, I have never heard such a sūtra! Bhagavān, if there are again people who are able to hear this sūtra thusly, with a mind of clean and clear belief, giving rise to the true appearance, then this is a person with the most extraordinary merits. Bhagavān, the true appearance is not an appearance, and for this reason the Tathāgata speaks of a true appearance.

“Bhagavān, being able to hear this sūtra thusly, I do not find it difficult to believe, understand, accept, and maintain it. However, in the next era, five hundred years from now, if there are sentient beings who are able to hear this sūtra and believe, understand, accept, and maintain it, then they will be most extraordinary. Why? This is because such a person has no notions of a self, notions of a person, notions of a being, or notions of a life. Why? The appearance of a self is not a true appearance; appearances of a person, a being, and a life, are also not true appearances. Those who have departed from all appearances are called buddhas.” The Buddha told Subhūti, “Thusly, thusly! If there are again people who are able to hear this sūtra, and are not startled, terrified, or fearful, know that the existence of such a person is extremely rare. Why? Subhūti, this foremost pāramitā that the Tathāgata speaks of is not a foremost pāramitā, and is thus called the foremost pāramitā.

“Subhūti, the Pāramitā of Forbearance that the Tathāgata speaks of is not a pāramitā of forbearance. Why? Subhūti, this is like in the past when my body was cut apart by the Kalirāja: there were no notions of a self, notions of a person, notions of a being, or notions of a life. In the past, when I was being hacked limb from limb, if there were notions of a self, notions of a person, notions of a being, or notions of a life, then I would have responded with hatred and anger. Remember also that I was the Ṛṣi of Forbearance for five hundred lifetimes in the past. Over so many lifetimes there were no notions of a self, notions of a person, notions of a being, or notions of a life.

“Therefore, Subhūti, bodhisattvas should depart from all appearances in order to develop the mind of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi. They should give rise to a mind which does not dwell in form; they should give rise to a mind which does not dwell in sounds, scents, tastes, sensations, or dharmas; they should give rise to a mind which does not dwell. In anything that dwells in the mind, one should not dwell, and for this reason the Buddha says that the minds of bodhisattvas should not dwell in form when practicing giving. Subhūti, bodhisattvas should give thusly because it benefits all sentient beings. The Tathāgata teaches that all characteristics are not characteristics, and all sentient beings are not sentient beings. Subhūti, the Tathāgata is one who speaks what is true, one who speaks what is real, one who speaks what is thus, and is not a deceiver or one who speaks to the contrary.

“Subhūti, the Dharma attained by the Tathāgata is neither substantial nor void. Subhūti, if the mind of a bodhisattva dwells in dharmas when practicing giving, then this is like a person in darkness who is unable to see anything. However, if the mind of a bodhisattva does not dwell in dharmas when practicing giving, then this is like a person who is able to see, for whom sunlight clearly illuminates the perception of various forms. Subhūti, in the next era, if there are good men or good women capable of accepting, maintaining, studying, and reciting this sūtra, then the Tathāgata by means of his buddha-wisdom is always aware of them and always sees them. These people all obtain immeasurable, limitless merit.

15. The Merits of Maintaining this Sūtra: “Subhūti, suppose there were a good man or a good woman who, in the morning, gave his or her body away as many times as there are grains of sand in the Ganges River. In the middle of the day, this person would also give his or her body away as many times as there are grains of sand in the Ganges River. Then in the evening, this person would also give his or her body away as many times as there are grains of sand in the Ganges River. Suppose this giving continued for incalculable billions of eons. If there are people again who hear this sūtra with a mind of belief, without doubt, then the merits of these people surpass the former merits. How much more so for those who write, accept, maintain, study, recite, and explain it?

“Subhūti, to summarize, this sūtra has inconceivable, immeasurable, limitless merit. The Tathāgata speaks it to send forth those in the Great Vehicle, to send forth those in the Supreme Vehicle. If there are people able to accept, maintain, study, recite, and explain this sūtra to others, then the Tathāgata is always aware of them and always sees them. Thusly, these people are carrying the Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi of the Tathāgata. Why? Subhūti, those who are happy with lesser teachings are attached to views of a self, views of a person, views of a being, and views of a life. They cannot hear, accept, maintain, study, recite, and explain it to others. Subhūti, in every place where this sūtra exists, the devas, humans, and asuras from every world should provide offerings. This place is a shrine to which everyone should respectfully make obeisance and circumambulate, adorning its resting place with flowers and incense.

16. Able to Purify Obstructions: “Moreover, Subhūti, suppose good men and good women accept, maintain, study, and recite this sūtra. If they are treated badly due to karma from a previous life that would make them fall onto evil paths, then from this treatment by others their karma from previous lives will be eliminated in this lifetime, and they will attain Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi. Subhūti, I remember in the past, innumerable, incalculable eons before Dīpaṃkara Buddha, being able to meet 84,000 countless myriads of buddhas, and providing offerings to honor them all without exception. Suppose someone in the next era is able to accept, maintain, study, and recite this sūtra. The merits of my offerings to all those buddhas are, in comparison to the merits of this person, not even one hundredth as good. They are so vastly inferior that a comparison cannot be made. Subhūti, if there are good men and good women in the next era who accept, maintain, study, and recite this sūtra, and I were to fully explain all the merits attained, the minds of those listening could go mad with confusion, full of doubt and disbelief. Subhūti, understand that just as the meaning of this sūtra is inconceivable, its rewards of karma are also inconceivable.”

17. Ultimately Without Self: At that time, Subhūti addressed the Buddha, saying, “Bhagavān, when good men and good women develop the mind of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi, how should their minds dwell? How should they pacify their minds?” The Buddha told Subhūti, “Good men and good women develop Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi by giving rise to a mind thusly: ‘I will liberate all sentient beings. Yet when all sentient beings have been liberated, then truly not even a single sentient being has been liberated.’ Why? Subhūti, a bodhisattva who has a notion of a self, a notion of a person, a notion of a being, or a notion of a life, is not a bodhisattva. Why is this so? Subhūti, there is actually no dharma of one who develops Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi.

“What do you think? When the Tathāgata was with Dīpaṃkara Buddha, was there any dharma of the attainment of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi?” “No, Bhagavān, and thus do I explain the actual meaning of the Buddha’s teachings: when the Buddha was with Dīpaṃkara Buddha, there was truly no dharma of the attainment of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi.” The Buddha said, “Thusly, thusly, Subhūti! There was no dharma of the Tathāgata’s attainment of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi. Subhūti, if there were a dharma of the Tathāgata’s attainment of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi, then Dīpaṃkara Buddha would not have given me the prediction, ‘In the next era you will become a buddha named Śākyamuni.’ It is because there was no dharma of the attainment of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi, that Dīpaṃkara Buddha gave me this prediction by saying, ‘In the next era you will become a buddha named Śākyamuni.’ Why? ‘Tathāgata’ has the meaning of the suchness of dharmas. Subhūti, if someone says, ‘The Tathāgata has attained Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi,’ there is no dharma of a buddha’s attainment of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi.

“Subhūti, the true attainment by the Tathāgata of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi is neither substantial nor void, and for this reason the Tathāgata says, ‘All dharmas are the Buddha Dharma.’ Subhūti, all dharmas spoken of are actually not all dharmas, and are thus called all dharmas. Subhūti, this is like the body of a person that is tall and great.” Subhūti said, “Bhagavān, the body of a person that the Tathāgata speaks of, tall and great, is not a great body, and is thus called the Great Body.” “Subhūti, for bodhisattvas it is also such as this. If someone says ‘I will liberate and cross over innumerable sentient beings,’ then this is not one to be called a bodhisattva. Why? Subhūti, truly there is no dharma of a bodhisattva, and for this reason the Buddha says, ‘All dharmas are not a self, a person, a being, or a life.’ Subhūti, if a bodhisattva says, ‘I am adorning buddha-lands,’ then this is not one to be called a bodhisattva. Why? The adornments of buddha-lands spoken of by the Tathāgata are not adornments, and are thus called adornments. Subhūti, if a bodhisattva has penetrating realization that dharmas are without self, then the Tathāgata says, ‘This is a true bodhisattva.’

18. Of a Single Unified Perception: “Subhūti, what do you think? Does the Tathāgata have the Physical Eye?” “Thusly, Bhagavān, the Tathāgata has the Physical Eye.” “Subhūti, what do you think? Does the Tathāgata have the Divine Eye?” “Thusly, Bhagavān, the Tathāgata has the Divine Eye.” “Subhūti, what do you think? Does the Tathāgata have the Prajñā Eye?” “Thusly, Bhagavān, the Tathāgata has the Prajñā Eye.” “Subhūti, what do you think? Does the Tathāgata have the Dharma Eye?” “Thusly, Bhagavān, the Tathāgata has the Dharma Eye.” “Subhūti, what do you think? Does the Tathāgata have the Buddha Eye?” “Thusly, Bhagavān, the Tathāgata has the Buddha Eye.” Subhūti, what do you think? Regarding the sand grains of the Ganges River, does the Buddha speak of these grains of sand?” “Thusly, Bhagavān, the Tathāgata speaks of these grains of sand.” “If there were as many Ganges Rivers as there are sand grains in the Ganges River, and there were such buddha world realms as there were sand grains in all those Ganges Rivers, would their number be very many?” “It would be extremely many, Bhagavān.” The Buddha told Subhūti, “Such a number of lands possess a multitude of sentient beings, and their minds are fully known by the Tathāgata. Why? The minds that the Tathāgata speaks of are not minds, and are thus called minds. Why is this so? Subhūti, past mind cannot be grasped, present mind cannot be grasped, and future mind cannot be grasped.

19. Pervading the Dharma Realm: “Subhūti, what do you think? If someone filled three thousand great thousand-worlds with the Seven Precious Jewels, and gave them away in the practice of giving, would this person obtain many merits from such causes and conditions?” “Thusly, Bhagavān, from such causes and conditions, the merits of this person would be extremely many.” “Subhūti, if such merits truly existed, then the Tathāgata would not say that many merits that are obtained. It is from the merits that are unconditioned, that the Tathāgata speaks of obtaining many merits.

20. Leaving Form, Leaving Appearance: “Subhūti, what do you think? Can the Tathāgata be seen by means of the perfected body of form?” “No, Bhagavān, the Tathāgata cannot be seen by means of the perfected body of form. Why? The perfected body of form that the Tathāgata speaks of is itself not a perfected body of form, and is thus called the perfected body of form.” “Subhūti, what do you think? Can the Tathāgata be seen by the perfection of all marks?” “No, Bhagavān, the Tathāgata cannot be seen by the perfection of all marks. Why? The perfection of marks that the Tathāgata speaks of is itself not a perfection, and is thus called the perfection of marks.”

21. No speaking, No Dharma to Speak: “Subhūti, do not say that it occurs to the Tathāgata, ‘I have a spoken Dharma.’ Do not compose this thought. Why? If someone says ‘The Tathāgata has a spoken Dharma,’ then this is like slandering the Buddha, because my teachings have not been understood. Subhūti, one who speaks the Dharma is unable to speak any dharma, and it is thus called speaking the Dharma.” At that time, Living Wisdom Subhūti addressed the Buddha, saying, “Bhagavān, will there be sentient beings in the next era who will hear this spoken dharma and give rise to a mind of belief?” The Buddha replied, “Subhūti, there will be neither sentient beings nor will there not be sentient beings. Why? Subhūti, the sentient beings that the Tathāgata speaks of are not sentient beings, and are thus called sentient beings.”

22. No Dharmas may be Grasped: Subhūti asked the Buddha, “Bhagavān, is the Buddha’s attainment of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi actually without attainment?” “Thusly, thusly, Subhūti. With regard to my Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi, there is not even the slightest dharma of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi which may be grasped.

23. The Virtuous Practice of a Pure Mind: “Moreover, Subhūti, the equality of dharmas that has nothing that is better or worse, is called Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi, and by means of no self, no person, no being, and no life, all pure dharmas are cultivated and Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi is attained. Subhūti, these pure dharmas that the Tathāgata speaks of are not pure dharmas, and are thus called pure dharmas.

24. The Merits of Prajñā are Incomparable: “Subhūti, suppose three thousand great thousand-worlds all contained Sumeru, King of Mountains, and there were mountains such as this of the Seven Precious Jewels, given away by someone in the practice of giving. If a person has only a four-line gāthā from this Prajñāpāramitā sūtra, and accepts, maintains, studies, recites, and speaks it for others, then the merits of the other person are not even one hundredth as good. They are so vastly inferior that the two are incomparable.

25. Transformations are not Transformations: “Subhūti, what do you think? You should not say that it occurs to the Tathāgata, ‘I will cross over sentient beings.’ Subhūti, do not compose this thought. Why? Truly there are no sentient beings crossed over by the Tathāgata. If there were sentient beings crossed over by the Tathāgata, then there would be a self, a person, a being, and a life. The existence of a self that the Tathāgata speaks of is not the existence of a self, but ordinary people believe it is a self. Subhūti, an ordinary person that the Tathāgata speaks of is not an ordinary person.

26. The Dharmakāya is Without Appearance: “Subhūti, what do you think? Can the Tathāgata be observed by means of the Thirty-two Marks?” Subhūti replied, “Thusly, thusly, with the Thirty-two Marks the Tathāgata is to be observed.” The Buddha said, “Subhūti, if the Tathāgata could be observed by means of the Thirty-two Marks, then a cakravartin king would be a tathāgata.” Subhūti addressed the Buddha, saying, “Bhagavān, thus do I explain the meaning of what the Buddha has said. One should not observe the Tathāgata by means of the Thirty-two Marks.” At that time, the Bhagavān spoke a gāthā, saying:

If one perceives me in forms,
If one listens for me in sounds,
This person practices a deviant path
And cannot see the Tathāgata.

27. No Severing, No Annihilation: “Subhūti, suppose you think, ‘The Tathāgata has not, from the perfection of characteristics, attained Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi.’ Subhūti, do not compose the thought, ‘The Tathāgata has not, from the perfection of characteristics, attained Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi.’ Subhūti, composing this thought, the one who is developing the mind of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi is then speaking of the severence and annihilation of dharmas. Do not compose this thought. Why? One who is developing the mind of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi does not speak of a characteristic of the severence and annihilation of dharmas.

28. Not receiving, not desiring: “Subhūti, suppose a bodhisattva, in the practice of giving, filled as many world realms with the Seven Precious Jewels, as there are grains of sand in the Ganges River. If there is a person with the awareness that all dharmas are without self, and accomplishes their complete endurance, then this is superior, and the merits attained by this bodhisattva surpass those of the previous bodhisattva. Subhūti, the reason for this is that bodhisattvas do not receive merit.” Subhūti addressed the Buddha, saying, “Bhagavān, why do you say that bodhisattvas do not receive merit?” “Subhūti, for bodhisattvas to make merit, they should not greedily wish to acquire it, and therefore it is said that there is no merit received.

29. Power and Position Destroyed in Silence: “Subhūti, if someone says that the Tathāgata comes, goes, sits, or lies down, then this person does not understand the meaning of my teachings. Why? The Tathāgata is one who neither comes nor goes anywhere, and for this reason is called the Tathāgata.

30. The Principle of the Unity of Appearances: “Subhūti, if a good man or good woman disintegrated three thousand great thousand-worlds into atoms, would these atoms be very many in number?” “They would be extremely many, Bhagavān. Why? If this multitude of atoms truly existed, then the Buddha would not speak of a multitude of atoms. Yet the Buddha does speak of a multitude of atoms, and therefore the multitude of atoms spoken of by the Buddha is not a multitude of atoms, and is thus called a multitude of atoms. Bhagavān, the three thousand great thousand-worlds that the Tathāgata speaks of are not worlds, and are thus called worlds. Why? The existence of these worlds is like a single unified appearance. Why? The unified appearance that the Tathāgata speaks of is not a unified appearance, and is thus called the unified appearance.” “Subhūti, one who is of the unified characteristic is unable to speak it, and yet ordinary people greedily wish to acquire it.

31. Unborn Knowing and Perceiving: “Subhūti, suppose a person says, ‘The Buddha teaches views of a self, a person, a being, and a life.’ Subhūti, what do you think? Does this person understand the meaning of my teachings?” “No, Bhagavān, this person does not understand the meaning of the Tathāgata’s teachings. Why? The views of a self, a person, a being, and a life, that the Bhagavān speaks of, are not views of a self, a person, a being, or a life, and are thus called the views of a self, a person, a being, and a life.” “Subhūti, regarding all dharmas, one who is developing the mind of Anuttarā Samyaksaṃbodhi should thusly know, thusly see, and thusly believe, not giving rise to notions of dharmas. Subhūti, the true characteristic of dharmas is not a characteristic of dharmas, and is thus called the characteristic of dharmas.

32. Transforming the Unreal: “Subhūti, suppose someone filled immeasurable, innumerable worlds with the Seven Precious Jewels, and then gave these away in the practice of giving. If a good man or good woman develops the mind of a bodhisattva and maintains this sūtra, even with as little as a four-line gāthā, and accepts, maintains, studies, recites, and explains it to others, then the merits of this surpass the others. How  should one explain it? Without grasping at characteristics, in unmoving suchness. For what reason?

All conditioned dharmas

Are like dreams, illusions, bubbles, or shadows;
Like drops of dew, or like flashes of lightning;
Thusly should they be contemplated.

After the Buddha had spoken this sūtra, then Elder Subhūti along with all the bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, upāsakas, upāsikās, and the devas, humans, and asuras from every world, heard what the Buddha had said. With great bliss, they believed, accepted, and reverently practiced in accordance.

Appendix: Mantra for the Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā

namo bhagavatīprajñāpāramitāyai
oṃ īriti īṣiri śruta viṣaya viṣaya svāhā

If you made it to the end of this piece: go you! This is a really long scroll -- just imagine having to write the whole thing out... Moreover, the ideas are very complex. I'm not by any means an expert on Buddhism, in general or in China specifically; I'm just a stressed-out college student with an esoteric passion for Ancient China. So, if you have any insight as to what this is telling us (as an expert, or just as a layperson with an opinion), then comment below! And seriously, why are adornments called adornments if they're not adornments? Why is the mind called a mind if it's not a mind?!